Resources

These are various resources I’ve discovered along the way in my search for figuring out how to use card sorts for mental model analysis. It’s certainly not exclusive, but this should at least get you started. Also note that some of the references throughout this website are not yet listed here, but I’m working on it.
Card sort tools: I’ve listed some of the available software that is currently active and supported. Many software tools you’ll read about are either obsolete or not currently supported, such as EZSort and TPL-KATS, so I’ve not included them here.
  • xSort.com
    • Mac OSX – This is now free for download at www.enoughpepper.com. A very well-designed application, especially as it provides built-in cluster analysis and can output similarity data ready for import into SPSS for multidimensional scaling analysis. This is my favorite due to the output capabilities since I like to use MDS for analysis.
  • OptimalSort.com
    • Very slick web-based application. Simple project is free, fee charged for more complex/multiple number of projects, users, and cards. Does not output data for MDS processing or cluster trees, but still quite useful, very easy to use, and can be accessed anywhere via the web.
  • WebSort.net
    • A commercial service that I have not tried.
  • Excel spreadsheet analysis
    • A popular tool from from Donna Maurer, noted card sort expert. Instructions are included.
Presentations
Books
  • Donna Spencer’s card sort book
    • This book was published April 2009. I’ll add more here when I’ve had a chance to review a copy.
  • Structural Knowledge: Techniques for representing, conveying, and acquiring structural knowledge. Jonassen, Beissner, & Yacci.
    • Describes how people mentally organize knowledge and provides a variety of techniques for eliciting and analyzing mental models. Methods include card sort, similarity ratings, and word association, and the book provides representation methods such as cognitive mapping, pathfinder networks, etc. This was one of my primary resources for understanding how card sorts can be used in analyzing mental models for education purposes.
  • What the Best College Teachers Do. Ken Bain
    • The opening chapter of this well-known book briefly explains how mental models impact learning.
  • Mental Models. Gentner & Stevens
    • Includes a chapter by Donald Norman, one of the most well-known cognitive scientists who helped make the study of mental models common-place.
  • Multidimensional Scaling. Kruskal & Wish
    • An often-referenced resource providing a fairly technical, but readable explanation of how MDS works for processing proximity data.
  • Advanced Methods of Data Exploration and Modeling. Everitt & Dunn.
    • A technical reference for data analysis techniques in the behavioral sciences. Includes a chapter on multidimensional scaling. Don’t use this first, or even second, but if you want a more detailed understanding of MDS read the Kruskal & Wish book first, then perhaps glance at this one.
  • The Nature of Explanation. Craik. The author that is credited with the concept of mental models (in 1943).
  • The Design of Everyday Things. Donald Norman. Famous for his “Norman Doors”, Norman is a cognitive scientist who has extensively studied how humans interface with their environment using the concept of mental models as a basis.
Articles
  • Maurer & Warfel. Card sorting: A definitive guide.
  • Neilsen. Card sorting: How many users to test.
  • Harper et al. TPL-KATS card sort: A tool for assessing structural knowledge. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 35(4), 577-584.
  • Jonassen. Mental models: Knowledge in the head and knowledge in the world. Educational Technology, 39(3), 39-42.
  • Jonassen. Operationalizing mental models: Strategies for assessing mental models to support meaningful learning and design-supportive learning environments. Proceedings of the Computer Support for Collaborative Learning Conference.
  • Levin, Stuve, & Jacobson. A comparison of mental models of networks among pre- and in-service teachers. Paper presented at AERA ’96.
  • Johnson. Cognitive analysis of expert and novice troubleshooting performance. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 1(3), 38-54.
  • Diekhoff & Wigginton. Using multidimensional scaling-produced cognitive maps to facilitate the communication of structural knowledge. Paper presentation: Southwestern Psychological Association.
  • Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser. Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive Science, 5, 121-152.
  • Kieras & Bovair. The role of mental models in learning to operate a device. Cognitive Science, 8, 255-273.
  • Seel. Educational diagnosis of mental models: Assessment problems and technology-based solutions. Journal of Structural Learning & Intelligent Systems. 14(2), 153-185.

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